Tivo Marketing Case Analysis Essay Example for Free

Tivo Marketing Case Analysis Essay The disappointing sales performance during the Christmas 1999 season ended up being a priceless lesson for TiVo’s marketing team: it was the catalyst that created the need for a TiVo’s new communications strategy. However, defining this new marketing campaign was challenging, especially after the feedback received about the product indicated issues like limited awareness and hard-to-communicate functionalities. The main focus of this new marketing campaign is to select a positioning strategy that will speed up the adoption of TiVo among consumers. The marketing team has three options on how to position TiVo: 1) as an enhanced digital video recorder, 2) as a product that gives viewers the ability to create their own television network, 3) or as a super VCR. I recommend that they position TiVo as the super VCR that gives users a unique TV experience. Analysis TiVo’s potential goes beyond the introduction of an innovative electronics product; it has the power to change the habit of how Americans watch television. So far TiVo’s penetration has been extremely limited, many consumers are not aware of its existence, and at the point-of-sale, the salespeople are encountering difficulties in explaining the benefits of the product. Moreover, TiVo represented a totally new innovative product that targeted the enhancement of television viewing, which was clearly not on anyone’s priority list. To communicate TiVo’s advantages, the marketing team has considered using different advertising sources for different purposes. However, this approach eliminates the possibility of communicating a consistent message across all potential buyers. Without a consistent message, consumers will be confused of what TiVo truly represents. Most consumers are aware of what a VCR is, so positioning TiVo as the super VCR would make it easier for consumers to associate it with a familiar product and its functions. If the message behind TiVo focuses on providing users with the ultimate television experience, consumers are likely to be curious about what this super VCR is all about. It indirectly encourages consumers to try this state-of-the-arte innovation. The drawback of positioning TiVo as an enhanced digital video recorder is that consumers can view it as an extremely high technological innovation, not suitable for a typical household, but apt for technologically savvy consumers. Digital recorders are a relatively new innovation, with a limited awareness and familiarity among consumers. It narrows TiVo’s ability to reach a wider range of consumers. Positioning TiVo as a product that allows any user to program his or her own TV network not only focuses on one of the many features of TiVo, but the idea behind it is too abstract. TiVo’s relative advantage is high, as its innovation is significantly better than the products it is replacing, specially the regular VCR. Before TiVo, the average household spent more than 7 hours watching TV. TiVo’s intent is to make television viewing a lot more enjoyable, making it a totally new experience. Thus, its functionality is highly compatible with the existing consumer behavior. However, due to the many benefits the product offers, many consumers have difficulty understanding all the benefits of the product. Some users even had trouble using the system, which is not very easy to use; therefore its complexity is high. The trialability of TiVo is low, since the product can be experimented most of the time either in retail stores through a demonstration or through the online demo available at TiVo’s website. TiVo’s observability is currently low, since many consumers have a lack of awareness of its existence. Finally, the risk involved with TiVo’s launching is high, as there is an important amount of capital committed to the success of the project. TiVo’s proposed positioning as the super VCR can be analyzed with the Marketing Mix analysis. Product. TiVo, the super VCR, is the first digital video recorder that empowers television viewers to create their own personal television network. Viewers can pause live television to attend interruptions such as phone calls or unexpected visits. It gives viewers the freedom to watch whichever program they want, whenever they want. With TiVo’s capacity to store up to 30 hours of recorded television, users reduce the hassle of using videotapes to record television programs. Users virtually eliminate the possibility of missing their favorite shows, since they can set-up TiVo to record them. With these aforementioned features, TiVo will revolutionize the way Americans view television. Price. The current price of $999 for the 30-hour TiVo box is extremely high. It can easily discourage any early adopter or a TV addict. Hence, the marketing team should reduce the price to $399, even lower if financially viable. The more attractive the ticket (i. e. TiVo Box) for the ultimate TV experience, the easier consumers will be lured in. The service fee structure seems at a very reasonable price, it requires no major price adjustments. Place. Electronic retail stores, such as Best Buy, Circuit City, and Sears serve as the best channels to sell the product. It is imperative that the marketing team develops a training program for the sales force of those retail outlets. Many consumers will have their first TiVo experience in a retail store; hence, the salespeople must be prepared to demonstrate the benefits of TiVo in a flawless way. The internet should be used as another channel to sell the product, especially the TiVo website, where it must have a friendly-user demo, so customers can interact with TiVo. Promotion. Consistency is the key to launch a successful communication strategy across the different media sources. The marketing team should focus on attractive ways to create the need and dependency of TiVo. Offering a 30-day free trial for the TiVo recorder and service is an excellent way to allow consumers to fully experience TiVo’s benefits. Presenting testimonials of TiVo users about their positive experiences with the product stimulates the curiosity among consumers who want to know what the super VCR really does. Recommendation Positioning the TiVo as the super VCR that provides the ultimate TV experience will speed up the adoption of this innovative product. This theme stimulates a very particular interest among those who consider watching television as a means of entertainment. Moreover, delivering this message builds on TiVo’s brand identity, which can be associated with the innovative super VCR that changed an old-fashioned lifestyle. TiVo is more than the first digital video recorder that gave consumers the opportunity to develop their own personal television network; it is the super VCR that is making the habit of watching TV as the ultimate experience.

On Korea Essay -- South North Korea Essays

On Korea Throughout most of its history, Korea has existed as one country with a rich culture and history. Then in the 1940's, Korea was controlled by Japan. World War II broke out, and the Allies defeated the Axis powers. The country of Korea was divided into two parts -- the north and the south. The north was occupied by communist Russian forces and the south by American troops. The dividing line was the 38th parallel(see map). In 1950, a civil war began between the two Koreas, further separating them. Both countries have since established totally different ways of life that include government, economics, and lifestyles. As a result of all that has transpired and recent incidents, it would appear to be highly improbable that there will be a united Korea in the near future. The known history of Korea dates back thousands of years before Christ. It was a nation with a common heritage, language, and ethnicity. Due to Japan's role in World War II and the fact that Japan had occupied Korea, the country was divided. Many Koreans had been displaced by Japanese colonization and others by the establishment of the 38th parallel border line. Korea was not an axis power. It is difficult to understand why Korea would have to be divided as was Germany.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At first, Korea was supposed to be unified with a multilateral administration. But the cold war changed the United States' mission to unilateral containment of the spread of Soviet communism. Supported by the Soviets, North Korea attacked South Korea in June of 1950. The South Koreans pushed into North Korea with American aid. But the Soviet Union, helped the North Koreans to push the South Koreans back . "During the bitterly destructive Korean War, the entire peninsula was devastated. Some three million of its population were killed and more than ten million were left homeless and jobless." (History in modern) Stalemate resulted in 1953 in terms of land gain. The 38th parallel remained the dividing line. The Korean War did not resolve anything, allowing problems to continue up to today. After that time Soviet influence in the North diminished with the Chinese taking their place. Throughout the Korean War period, Koreans were trying to adjust to the changes in their lives from Japan's colonization forward. As a result of the 46-year separation, North and South Korea have grown ... ...ral population.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When considering the present tense situation, it is important to consider geographical and political data about Korea. The Korean peninsula is about the size of Minnesota. There are about 20 million people in the North and around 40 in the South. The divided country has been in a state of civil war for the past 46 years. The peninsula is surrounded by China, Russia, and Japan. The United States has kept troops in South Korea throughout that time period. . Both countries have received massive support from the super powers. The North is communistic and the South is capitalistic The cold war that has ended in Europe has not ceased in Asia. "Conjure up a present in which more than a million soldiers confront each other across a Mason-Dixon line, armed to the teeth with the latest equipment; the line is so firm that nothing crosses it†¦" (The 2 Koreas, &^$^*%) The latest equipment includes bombers, nuclear weapons, chemical warfare, naval vessels, etc. Given recent divisive situations, the potential for all-out warfare to develop between the two Koreas has increased. Reunification, as in Germany, becomes more difficult with each passing day.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   p

Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations That Shaped a Nation

April 13, 1743 Albemarle County in the English colony of Virginia was the start of an American historical giant. Thomas Jefferson was born in affluence to his father, Peter Jefferson, a rising young planter in the Virginia colony, and his mother, Jane Randolph, who held a high status within the colony as well. Due to his father’s prosperity Jefferson was afforded the absolute best in the ways of education, starting with private tutors at the age of five, then moving on to learn how to read Greek and Roman in there original text and finally taking his studies to the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg which he would say is â€Å"†¦what probably fixed the destinies of my life†¦Ã¢â‚¬  pg 5. On the other side of the spectrum, a few years later another huge American historical figure is born. Presumably on January 11, 1755, Alexander Hamilton the bastard son of his father, James Hamilton, a Scotsman of a well-known family but never flourished on his own, and his mother, Rachel Fawcett Lavien, who had left her husband, John Lavien, to live with James Hamilton. There is very little said about Hamilton’s early life just that his father â€Å"drifted away† and his mother passed in 1768. Lacking wealth, Hamilton’s educational opportunities in his young life were nonexistent, this is not to say though that his youth was wasted it was here that he gained a vast knowledge of business and finance that he would later use in his service to President George Washington. Even in their early lives it was easy to see the great dissimilarities between these two patriarchs, now I will discuss further more issues that Jefferson and Hamilton shared some differences of opinions. During the Philadelphia convention of 1787, which we now refer to as the Constitutional Convention, James Madison, representative from Virginia, in his notes of Hamilton’s lengthy speech on June 18, 1787 he writes, â€Å"Mr. Hamilton, had been hitherto silent on the business before the Convention†¦Ã¢â‚¬  pg 17 Madison had added it to Hamilton’s character to be so, suggesting that it was out of respect of the men who were superior in age, abilities, and experience to him, but also making it clear that the matters before the convention were far too important for Hamilton to remain that way. Hamilton expressed dissatisfaction with both of the plans brought forward to the convention. The Virginia plan, which was a proposal to completely abandon the Articles of Confederation, and replace it with a bicameral national legislature, an executive branch selected by the legislature, a judiciary, and a council of revision with the power veto, and the New Jersey plan, which suggested to keep the Articles of Confederation, but revise it to give Congress the power to tax, regulate commerce, and choose plural executive and members of a supreme court. Hamilton felt both these plans lacked a strong central government. He was specifically displeased with the New Jersey plan â€Å"being fully convinced† Madison writes â€Å"that no amendment of the Confederation, leaving the States in possession of their Sovereignty could possibly answer the purpose. † pg 18-19. He feared that either of these plans would leave the newly founded country weakened and â€Å"†¦would ultimately destroy the confederation†¦Ã¢â‚¬  pg 20. Finally, though Hamilton would given the federal government more power, he supported what was to be and is now the Constitution of the United States of America and he became one of its leading supporters during the ratification process. Though Jefferson was unable to join the convention due to his duties in France as the United States Minister, he learned of its resolution in November 1787, from a copy sent to him by John Adams. After receiving a letter from Madison explaining the proceedings of the convention he articulated his likes and dislikes of the Constitution. Jefferson liked â€Å"the organization of the government into legislative, Judiciary and Executive† pg 23 and the powers given to each branch. Among his dislikes, the greatest seeming to be â€Å"†¦the omission of a bill of rights providing clearly and without the aid of sophisms†¦Ã¢â‚¬  pg 23 the freedoms he felt inalienable to the human race. During the French Revolutionary war in 1789, Jefferson and Hamilton found each other on opposing sides once again. Jefferson felt that while the violence in the revolt was deplorable but he â€Å"†¦would have seen half the earth desolated. † pg 109 than to see the cause of liberty fail, feeling that â€Å"the liberty of the whole earth was depending on the issues of the contest. pg 109. While Hamilton, disagreed almost wholly on Jefferson’s justification for the violence in France. He â€Å"as a friend to mankind and to liberty†¦Ã¢â‚¬  pg 106-107 rejoiced in the efforts made by Marquis de Lafayette, General of the French Revolutionary National Guard and after serving with Hamilton in 1781 a friend of his as well, but feared the steps in motion t o gain the freedom that Lafayette and all of France desired. It was said that Hamilton never commented on the French revolution without it bringing the â€Å"horror,† â€Å"abhorrence,† and â€Å"repulsion† to his mind. In the presidential election in 1800, Hamilton not being a native born citizen could never run for the presidency, but this didn’t stop him from doing a lot of work in the background to protect his big government federalist views. When he first learned of the federalist’s loss in New York he wrote a letter to Theodore Sedgwick urging him and the other federalists in the legislature â€Å"to support Adams and Pinckney, equally†¦Ã¢â‚¬  pg 130 feeling that it was their only shot at a federalist for president. Hamilton went as far as to contact John Jay, federalist and the current governor of New York, to call a special session of the federally run legislature knowing that there were many objections to this proposal but feeling that â€Å"†¦the reasons for (the special session) outweigh the objections† pg 131. When it came time to vote the results ended as Jefferson 73, Burr 73, Adams 65, Pinckney 64, and John Jay 1. Hamilton now had a much different fight to make, while Jefferson was less than desirable as a candidate, Aaron Burr was an unthinkable choice in Hamilton’s mind. Knowing now that it either was going to be Burr or Jefferson, Hamilton started contacting people persuading them to vote Jefferson over Burr because â€Å"†¦Jefferson is to be preferred. He is by far not so dangerous a man and he has pretensions to his character. † pg 133. In April 1802, Spain had retroceded Louisiana to France, giving the French a valuable spot on the continent with the Mississippi river connecting the south U. S. to the rest of the commercial U. S. The big turning point was in October of 1802 when Spain invalidates the United States use of the ports on the river. Jefferson seemed to be very torn by this predicament having been the U. S. minister to France a few years previously saying â€Å"this is not a state of things we seek or desire. † pg 159. On April 30, 1803 James Monroe, a diplomat to France, left prepared to offer France up to fifty million livres, upon arrival he and Robert R. Livingston initialed an agreement that ceded all of Louisiana to the United States for $15 Million, the settling of which is looked on as the peak of Jefferson’s first term as president. Hamilton had a lot to say about this purchase feeling that Spain’s â€Å"†¦direct nfraction of an important article of (Spain and the U. S. ’) treaty†¦Ã¢â‚¬  pg 164 was a call for war and â€Å"†¦should we have thought it advisable to terminate hostilities by a purchase, we might then have done it on almost our own terms†¦Ã¢â‚¬  pg 164. In 1798 Congress was well on the way to signing into law two acts that they felt at the t ime were for internal security of the U. S. The naturalization act and a sedition act, the idea behind the naturalization act was the president reserved the right to deport any resident alien he deemed dangerous, or if the U. S. was at war with an alien’s home country. The sedition act made it a crime to combine, conspire or to oppose any lawful measure of the government, it also made it punishable to write, say, or publish anything to defame the president, Congress or the government of the U. S. Jefferson saw these acts as a slap in the face to the constitution feeling like it was â€Å"an experiment on the American mind to see how far it will bear an avowed violation of the constitution. † pg 115. Hamilton felt just a strongly about these acts in his letter to Theodore Sedgwick he asks â€Å"What, My Dear Sir, are you going to do with Virginia? pg 118 after he learns of Virginia’s protest to the acts. He felt as congress did that the acts were for the best of the country feeling that the government â€Å"†¦will not be the dupes of an insidious plan to disunite the people of America†¦Ã¢â‚¬  pg 119. To say that Jefferson and Hamilton were diametrically opposed on all subjects some would say is an over simplification, whil e the two disagreed on many topics there were also many things that they could come together in agreement on. The biggest example was the way both men looked at the Constitution, not to say that it was perfect in either man’s eyes but it was definitely an area where they came to a very nice compromise with each other’s beliefs about how this country should be run. Both of these men fought hard and struggled against opposing views to make this country what it is today, there is no telling what our present would look like without these two gentlemen who did their best to make this a free nation.

Children At Risk Of Abuse And Critically Examine Its...

Explore what support is available to children at risk of abuse and critically examine its impact for safeguarding children. Introduction – 411 words Recently researchers have shown an increased interest on how looked after children are more vulnerable to neglect and abuse even aftercare. This essay gives a clear understanding and context as to why looked after children in aftercare are still in a vulnerable position. The term â€Å"Looked after Children† (LAC) is generally used with a local authority team involved with responsibility for improving the educational progress and attainment of children looked after by the authority (NSPCC, 2014, p.28-30). Looked after children are more prone to mental, physical, emotional and social neglect and abuse due to the fact they are not being supported, feeling lonely and isolated from society and services (SCIE, 2014). Risk factors associated with child maltreatment can be grouped in four domains: parent or caregiver factors, family factors, child factors and environmental factors (Bentovim, 2009, p.22-24). These four domains are critical in understanding how to effectively support t he child, professionals use these domains to zone in one the specific areas of risk and then work outwards on assessing how to help. Theorists such as: John Bowlby first outlined his theory of attachment and its central role in child development. Attachment theory is a theory of personality development in the context of close relationships. AlthoughShow MoreRelatedSafeguarding Adults: Enabling Adults in Vulnerable Circumstances.6310 Words   |  26 PagesAre safeguarding procedures effective in supporting people with learning disabilities who are involuntary users of services? Safeguarding is a key role for social workers working with people with learning disabilities. This assignment will consider models of human development and critically analyse factors that impact upon the vulnerability of adults. It will further explore how adults with learning disabilities are oppressed and discriminated against at various levels. Using a practical exampleRead MoreEssay on Safeguarding Vulnerable Adults3045 Words   |  13 PagesSTUDENT ID: 21162896 MODULE TITLE: SAFEGUARDING AND PROTECTING VULNERABLE ADULTS. MODULE CODE: NS40018/W ESSAY TITLE: SAFEGUARDING VULNERABLE ADULTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES WHO COME IN CONTACT WITH THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM. The aim of this essay is primarily to identify and discuss the reasons for and factors contributing to the vulnerability of adults with learning disabilities who come in contact with the criminal justice system. This essay will offer the rational for selecting thisRead MoreThe Long Term Effects of Child Sexual Abuse11950 Words   |  48 Pages CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE 21084661 UNIVERSITY OF WEST LONDON BSc (Hons) SOCIAL WORK HS60020E/0 Abstract Childhood sexual abuse is a serious concern that has been associated with long term effects amongst survivors. Using secondary data, this qualitative piece of research explores the long term effects of child sexual abuse in later adult lifeRead MoreHealth: Sociology and Social Care9095 Words   |  37 Pagescommunication and ways to overcome these barriers. Learners will explore the process of communication and how effective communication can affect how individuals feel about themselves. In addition, communication systems within organisations will be critically examined and learners will gain an understanding of the legal frameworks surrounding the recording of information about people. Learners will gain an understanding of the use of information and communication technology as a tool in health andRead MoreAward In Education Training 650231182 Words   |  105 Pageslearning would include: 1. Knowledge of relevant principles, and where appropriate theories, that apply in this field. 2. Evidence of appropriate reading relating to principles, theories and practice. 3. Consideration of how professional values impact on working in this area. 4. Evidence of a reflective approach. 6502 Level 3 - Form 1 Record of achievement Award in Education and Training ASSESSMENT RECORD Candidates Name and Enrolment no. (As required on the certificate) Candidates dateRead MoreA Critical Analysis of Personal Leadership Style with Reference to Classical Theoretical Frameworks.9317 Words   |  38 PagesA critical analysis of personal leadership style with reference to classical theoretical frameworks. The aim of this study is to examine my personal leadership style, in the context of some of the major classical theoretical frameworks of leadership from within the wide body of literature available on this subject. I will aim to apply the analysis of these theories to my own leadership practice and style, and to identify areas where theory can improve my performance within the workplace. I willRead MoreCommunication And Health And Social Care9509 Words   |  39 Pagesmethodical in nature, we tend to follow the order of things, as we have taught them. Piaget s Stages of Cognitive Development (Operant Conditioning) Jean Piaget s theory proposed that children progress through a series of four key stages of cognitive development. Each stage identifiable by shifts in how children understand the world. The four distinct stages are the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage and the formal operational stage. The sensorimotor stage, fromRead MoreEthics of Information Communication Technology (Ict)27618 Words   |  111 Pageswhose rules they find comfortable or uncomfortable. This flexibility may at times lead to improper user conduct. Also, in the absence of any suitable legal framework, it may be difficult for System Administrators to check on frauds, vandalism or other abuses, which may cause the lives of many online users to be miserable. This situation is alarming because any element of distrust for the internet may lead to people avoiding doing transactions online, thereby directly affecting the growth of e-commerceRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesParadigm for an Urban World †¢ Howard Spodek 53 3 Women in the Twentieth-Century World Bonnie G. Smith 83 4 The Gendering of Human Rights in the International Systems of Law in the Twentieth Century †¢ Jean H. Quataert 116 5 The Impact of the Two World Wars in a Century of Violence †¢ John H. Morrow Jr. 161 6 Locating the United States in Twentieth-Century World History †¢ Carl J. Guarneri 213 7 The Technopolitics of Cold War: Toward a Transregional Perspective †¢ GabrielleRead MoreExploring Corporate Strategy - Case164366 Words   |  658 Pagesthis run the company. It’s about a difference in style.6 As to the strategic review, Rodol observed: Over the years, we’ve pursued a number of opportunities that we shouldn’t have done. The intention we have over the next couple of months is to examine what the core of Ministry of Sound actually is.7 The Ministry of Sound was not, however, abandoning all initiatives. Rodol saw large potential in continued merchandising in areas such as branded clothing, specialist holidays and consumer hi-ï ¬  products

The Movie Animals Essay - 2000 Words

Animals portrayed in films. First thought of these words and you instantly think of either a savage beast that’s right there to rip and tear off your bare flesh, eat you alive, slowly and painfully if you do the wrong thing in front of it, don’t get away from it fast enough or find yourself lost and are on a journey to safety and run into wild beasts; or it is something that is worth protecting for your entire life, it will do whatever it can to be reunited with you or protect you. Even if it means it’s sacrificing their life in the process, just to make sure that their master’s/friend’s lives can continue. But how accurate are these portrayals? Ever since the beginning of films, there have been animals either killing humans viciously, or saving their lives miraculously. And since the beginning of films, these have stuck in the mind of people for years, changed how people portrayed certain animals into stereotypes and omens. Whether they be omens of good fortune to people living in the old days, or bad omens to people and their culture, they have been created by Hollywood and found a place in the hearts and brains of millions that believe their banter to be 100% true. But what types of films have implanted these beliefs and superstitions on people? Films that show the gruesome sides of animals as cold, black-hearted and deadly killers include films like â€Å"The Grey† (2011), where a few survivors of a plane crash must survive in wolf territory while trying to find safety,Show MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Movie Nocturnal Animals 1511 Words   |  7 PagesNocturnal Animals is a movie written and directed and by the fashion juggernaut Tom Ford, who used capital earned from his brand to fund most of his movies and become a film director. In my opinion, Ford was extremely successful in transferring his artistry and creativity to cross the bridge from the fashion industry taking it to Hollywood. The movie features Amy Adams, known for her role as a supporting actress in the Superman movies which was not well received by the critics and American HustleRead MoreAnalysis of Animal Kindom an Australian Movie1240 Words   |  5 PagesAnimal kingdom (2010) is an Australian movie about a seventeen-year-old boy named Josh Cody who is immersed in a world of crime during the mid-1980’s. Due to the death of his mother Josh is left with no other option then to move in with his criminal relatives. Josh’s grandmother Janine (also referred to as ‘Smurf’) welcomes Josh to live with her and her three beloved sons, Andrew (Pope), Craig and Darren. Craig is a mid level drug dealer whilst Pope and his best friend Barry Brown (Baz) are armedRead MoreMovie Analysis : The Hunter 999 Words   |  4 PagesMovie Review- The Hunter Looking for something unique and unforgettable? The Hunter is the one. It has a great meaning behind the story and great visual affects. This film has a very adventurous feel to it, which keeps the attention of the audience. I would definitely recommend this movie to my peers and anyone interested in the hunting community because, the movie represents the key skills to become a great hunter such as scouting, tracking, and patients. In the 2012 Australian film, The HunterRead MoreAnalysis Of The Movie Zootopia902 Words   |  4 PagesRyan Hernandez 24 October 2017 Comp. 1 5th Hour Movie Review Zootopia Judy Hopps, also known as Ginnifer Goodwin, is a fictional character in the movie Zootopia. Zootopia is an action packed animated film that came out on March 4, 2016. All of the characters in the movie are anthropomorphic, which means they are all animals that have human characteristics. The movie is about a young rabbit named Judy Hopps who wants to become the first bunny cop in Zootopia. Zootopia is a large city whereRead MoreAnimal Farm Essay838 Words   |  4 Pageswatching the movie, I was expecting ninety minutes of boredom, a movie that didnt follow the storyline of the novel. But based on the spectacular anecdote written by George Orwell, thanks to the director John Stephenson and Producer Greg Smith, the satire Animal Farm becomes a movie . Like the book, the movie is a drama/ action film. It focuses on a farm, - Manor Farm- which is run by an alcoholic farmer known as the character Jones. Jones mistreats, abuses and starves the animals, forcing themRead MorePlot Of The Film The Night On Amity Island 1689 Words   |  7 Pagesthe safety of the public. According to the mayor, the beaches should be open because the weekend of 4th of July is very busy and lucrative. On a second incident, a young boy suffers the same fate. His mother promises to reward whoever will kill the animal (Benchley, 2012). Benchley (2012) continues to narrate that there is an eruption of pandemonium when every boat owner embarks on a frantic hunt for the shark so as to win the reward. Matt Hooper, the oceanographer, is called by Chief BrodyRead MoreWatership Down by Richard Adams689 Words   |  3 Pagesa child the movie was non other than a film about a group of rabbits escaping their home, which is being destroyed, in hopes of finding a new place to reside. You may want to believe this movie is just about rabbits, but through the eyes of an adult this movie has a very different meaning. The use of animals in children’s movies to make a film kid friendly has been done for years. This is one reason why the rabbits are so effective in telling this tale. Rabbits are cute cuddly animals that presentRead MoreCompare and Contrast Life of Pi book and movie Essay1100 Words   |  5 Pagesreaders of the book and viewers of the movie perplexed about which story was the accurate one and is what made it such a success. In the movie, Ang Lee directs the story with his own take on a vast variety of visual details. The book however has many contrasting ideas and themes with the movie. There are many similarities and differences in the book and movie, but some overall themes are Pi and his struggles, the supporting characters, and Pi’s relationship with animals being portrayed in both but sometimesRead MoreAnimal Farm By George Orwell1228 Words   |  5 PagesGeorge Orwell wrote his book Animal Farm with the goal of showing his views and to express a story where cha racters in the book represent real and specific people and situations. Animal Farm ultimately signifies the Russian Revolution and the early years of the Soviet Union. The book uses Animalism to demonstrate communism and the Manor Farm is symbolic of Russia. Orwell displays a strong message in the novel about how power can time and again lead to corruption and oppression. People often thriveRead MoreThe Simple Minded Or Not?997 Words   |  4 Pagesthis for the simple minded or for the people that see past appearances? Jared Bush, Byron Howard, and Rich Moore came up with a movie called Zootopia, which goes into detail on how everyone without thinking is being simple minded. Instead of using people, animals were used to create an allusion of how life is and how things are misinterpreted in everyday life. The movie is addressed to child to show them that it is not okay to think that someone is bad or good based on what that person looks like

Similarities Between Civilizations And Ancient Civilizations

Although the Mesopotamia civilization was thought to be located in between the Tigris and Euphrates river , which is now west of Iraq , and the Indus Valley civilization was thought to be located near the Indus Valley , now New Delhi , India , these two civilizations have many similarities and also many differences . These specific similarities and differences range from location , religion , way of life , types of governments , political structures , social structures , intuitions and many more . Both civilizations are considered to be ancient civilizations , meaning , based on the free dictionary* , the history of an ancient world from the earliest known civilizations to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 a.d . In this essay I will explain and inform , you the reader , about the similarities and differences between these two civilizations . The first known civilization in the Fertile Crescent was uncovered in the 1800 s in Mesopotamia . The Tigris and Euphrates river s define Mesopotamia , which means , between the rivers , in Greek. This civilization is known for many things , but one of the main things they are known for are creating the first writing systems. Their form of writing , cuneiform , used different pictures to represent various objects but soon shifted to the use of geometric shapes to symbolize spoken sound. Also using judicial literature , one of Hammurabi s code of laws , and tipped literature stylus for writing , or recordShow MoreRelatedSimilarities Between Ancient And Ancient Civilizations950 Words   |  4 Pagesand Egyptians all prospered from the great rivers which their mighty civilizations once resided by, earning them the title of river valley civilizations. These civilizations grew thanks a lot to their riverine environments and as a result of this fortune were able to advance skills, pursue knowledge, and develop culture. Ancient cultures such as the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Egyptians made a variation of i nfluences to civilization. All Sumerian sculpture served as adornment or ritual equipment forRead MoreSimilarities Between Egypt And Ancient Civilizations1727 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout human history we have had government. Almost every civilization that humans have founded over the years has had some form of government. They include dictatorships, republics, oligarchies, and monarchies. Monarchies have been a common one through history. A monarchy is a form of government in which a country is ruled by a figured such as king or emperor. Since it was created many different forms of monarchy developed as different civilizations changed it to meet their needs. They changed the rolesRead MoreSimilarities And Differences Between Civilizations, Mesopotamia And Ancient China868 Words   |  4 PagesMany of the early world civilizations had similar experiences when evolving to become the influential societies that affected other societies. They were called the first civilizations be cause they were able to form the first functional communities, successful systems of organized laws over people, the distinction of social classes, economic income, and development of arts and educations. Two of histories well-known civilizations, Mesopotamia and Ancient China had similar experiences in the beginningsRead MoreAncient China Versus Ancient Greece Essay1008 Words   |  5 PagesAncient China Versus Ancient Greece Ancient China and Ancient Greece were two vastly different civilizations with different cultures; they shared a multitude of similar political, economic, and philosophical achievements while also inholding multiple differences. The centralized government of China differed from the independent city-states of Athens. A similarity that both civilizations held in regards to politics would be the role, or lack thereof one, that women played within their respectiveRead MoreSimilarities Between Ancient Egypt And Mesopotamia951 Words   |  4 Pagessocieties would form and later become civilizations. Two of the earliest considered civilizations in human history are Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. However, because of the different geography, exposure to outside invasion, influence, and beliefs, Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia came to not only contrast in political and social structures but also share similarities in them as well. When it came to the development of Ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations politics played a prominent role inRead MoreEgypt And Mesopotamia Similarities984 Words   |  4 Pageswhat ways were the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt alike? In what ways were they different? What accounts for these similarities and differences? Mesopotamia and Egypt were the first known civilizations in history. While maintaining separate identities, they still managed to have a vast number of similarities. Differences that go beyond general location were also very prevalent between the two civilizations. One of the biggest similarities between the two civilizations is that they bothRead MoreAncient And Modern Day Olympics1335 Words   |  6 Pageswestern civilization, and it is one of the many parts given to us by Greek and Roman civilizations. The extent at which the various civilizations have been influenced can be seen through the similarities and differences between the ancient and modern Olympics. For example, women were not allowed to participate in the ancient Greek games. On the other hand, many of the events that took place in the ancient games are similar to the ones in modern day Olympics. Greek and Roman civilization has contributedRead MoreComparing The River Valley Civilizations1509 Words   |  7 PagesComparing and Contrasting River Valley Civilizations In the following treatise, the research that will be presented will provide criteria involving similarities and differences in three attributes of life in the four primary river valley civilizations. The river valley civilizations are composed of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, and China. While each of these civilizations is unique in their habits and traditions, they share many similar qualities. For this work to be as comprehensive asRead MoreThe Old Testament And The Ancient Near East1543 Words   |  7 PagesTHE OLD TESTAMENT AND THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST I. Summary of Scholarly Debate Looking back, we can see glimpses of the lives of those who lived in the Ancient Near East, known as the ANE, through their stories and myths that have survived over centuries of time. Many of these stories contain unique elements that make each one personal to the civilization that they belong to, but there are common themes and ideas that are virtually shared between the traditional stories stemming from this region ofRead MoreThe Rise Of Civilizations On Egypt And Mesopotamia1530 Words   |  7 PagesThe rise of civilizations in Egypt and Mesopotamia occurred around the same time and the environment and natural forces affected the similarities and differences in social, political, and economic stability. There were many similarities and differences between both of these countries as well. In both cases, it was the river valley and geography that affected the agriculture, religious views, and government structures. The Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilization developed in the Midd le East and were

Quantitative Analysis Cheat Sheet free essay sample

Analytical chemistry: science of chemical measurement. Its object is the generation, treatment and evaluation of signals from which information is obtained on the composition and structure of matter Measurement: process of obtaining the magnitude of a quantity Example: The amount of saturated fat in the sample is 3 g/serving. Quantity: attribute of a phenomenon that may be distinguished qualitatively and determined quantitatively Value: magnitude of a particular quantity expressed as a unit of measured * a number Unit: particular quantity defined and adopted by convention for comparison of magni ? Globalization requires comparability of measurements Metric system: Meter Convention led to the signing of the Meter (1875) establishing the Bureau International des Poids et Measures In 1960, the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted the name Systeme International d’Unites (ISU) for recommended practical system of units of measurement Fundamental SI units: length (m), mass (kg), time, electric current (a), temp, luminous intensity – candela (cd), amount of substance (mol), plane angle (radian), solid angle (steradian) Meter: from 1/110^7 distance from equator to north pole ? distance travelled by light in a vacuum in 1/299, 792, 458 second Kg: only remaining unit whose definition is based on an international prototype ? Prototype 52 (Germany) 18 (UK) 20 (US) International proto (Sevres, France) 90% Pt, 10% Ir alloy SI derived: frequency(1/s), force, pressure (pascal), work, power (watt), charge (coulomb), electric potential (volt), elec resistance (ohm) 24-(-24) yotta, zetta, exa, peta, tera, giga, kilo, hector, deka, deci, centi, milli, micro, nano, pico, femto, atto, zepto, yocto amount of substance: number of some specified elementary entity: mole (quantity: amount) unit: mole One serving of milk contains 195 mg PHOSPHORUS (matrix ? value ? unit ? specie/analyte) Matrix: where the specie is being determined Concentration: how much solute is contained in a given mass or volume Molarity: mol/L * Molality: mol/kg*weight percent: mass of substance per mass solution (g/g % or wt%) *volume percent: Vol % * mole fraction: amount of substance in the total amount of solution (unitless) Normality: number of equivalence per liter solution Parts per million (ppm) is expressed in units mg/kg or  µg/mL Parts per billion (ppb) is expressed in  µg/kg or ng/g. aqeous:  µg/L or ng/mL Volumtetric flask: used to prepare solutions of exact concentration (contains a specified volume) Chapter 2: Tools of the trade laboratory notebook (objectives: state what was done, observed, be easily understandable) analytical balance (principle of operation – sample on balance pushes pan down with a force (m x g), balance pan with equal and opposing mass(mechanical: standard mass, electronic: opposing electromagnetic force, tare – mass of empty vessel) double-pan balance: balance beam suspended on a sharp knife edge, standard weights are added, weight of sample is equal to total weight of standards electronic balance: uses electromagnetic force to return the pan to original position (electric current required to generate force is proportional to sample mass) 2. Methods of weighting: basic operational rules: don’t place chemicals directly on weighing pan, balance in an arrested position (decrease sensitivity if not followed), weight by difference (useful when hygroscopic: readily absorb water from air), taring 3. Errors in weighing: sources (any factor that could affect mass – dirty or moist sample container, not at room temp, adsorption of water, vibration of wind currents, non-level balance) buoyance errors: failure to correct for weight difference due to displacement of air by sample correction: m = (m’(1-(da/dw))/(1-(da/d) m- true mass, m’ – mass read from balance, d – density of sample, da – density of air (0. 0012 g/ml at 1 atm at 25 C), dw – density of calibration weights (8 g/ml) density of air changes with temp and pressure (da under non standard conditions: =0. 46468(B-0. 3783 V/T) B= barometer pressure (torr), V= vapour pressure of water in the air (torr), T= temperature (K) Volume measurements: 1. Burets (used to deliver multiple aliquots of a liquid in known vols – tolerance: ? the smallest graduation) Correct use of buret: read buret at bottom of concave meniscus, read at eye level (avoids parallax errors, from above: smaller), estimate buret reading nearest 0. 1 division, expel all air bubbles, rinse buret 2-3x with solution, near end of titration, volume of 1 drop or less 2. Volumetric flask:correct use: add reagent of solution to flask and dissolve in volume of solvent less than total capacity of flask, slowly add more solvent until mark, mix solution by inversion (40 or more times), glass adsorbs trace amount of chemicals ? clean using acid wash (adhere to surface) 3. Pipets and Syringes (deliver a given volume of liquid) Types of pipets: transfer pipet (transfers a single volume, fill to calibration mark, last drop does not drain out of pipet (do not blow out), more accurate than measuring pipet(similar to vol flask) measuring pipet: calibrated similar to buret, use to deliver a variable volume micropipette: deliver volumes of 1 to 1000  µL(fixed and variable), uses disposable polypropylene tip, stable in most aqueous and organic solvents (not chloroform), need periodic calibration syringes: deliver volumes of 1 to 500  µL (accuraprec: 0. 5-1%, steel needle permits piercing stopper to transfer liquid under controlled atmosphere (attacked by strong acid and contaminate solution with iron) correct use: use a bulb for drawing solutions, rinse pipets and syringes before using, remove bubbles Filtration: mechanical separation of a liquid from the undissolved particles floating in it Purpose: used in gravimetric analysis for analysis of a substance by mass of a precipitate it produced (solid collected in paper or fritted-glass filters) Drying: remove moisture from reagents, convert sample to more readily analysable form Oven drying: common for sample prep, 110 C for water removal, use loose covers to prevent contamination from dust Dessicator: cool and store reagent or sample over long periods of time (contains drying agent to absorb water from atmosphere, airtight seal) Primary standard: may be used to prepare standard solution used as reference for knowing amount of subtstance or calibrate an analytical measurement (KHP f or determining NaOH) 99. 9% pure or better, not decompose under ordinary storage, stable when dried by heat or vacuum (should not be a hydrate), of high molecular weight Chapter 3: Propagation of Error significant figures: minimum number of digits needed to write a given value (in sci not) without loss of accuracy zeros are simple place holders and are counted significant only if, in between, to the right of the decimal point the last significant figure in any number is the first digit with any uncertainty (minimum uncertainty is +/- 1 unit in the last significant figure) addition/subtraction (least amount of decimal points), multiplication/division: least sig figs logs and antilogs ? a = 10^b or log(a)=b ? log(339)=2. 530 (2, character) and (. 530, mantissa) log – resulting mantissa should be same as total number of sig figs in original number (a) antilog: number of sig figs in the result should be same as total number of sig figs in the mantissa of original logarithm â€Å"b† graph: spread coordinates over as much of the graph as possible systematic or determinate error: error caused consistently in all results due to inappropriate methods or experimental techniques, results in a definite difference from true value, can be discovered/corrected random or indeterminate error: caused by random variations, results in scatter of results centered on true value(error type A), stdev accuracy: close to true value(systematic error), precision: close to each other(precision)(error type B, bias) absolute and relative uncertainty: both measures of the precision associated with a given measurement absolute uncertainty: margin of uncertainty associated with a measurement (like from the device) relative uncertainty: compare s size of the absolute uncertainty with the size of its associated measurement (absolute uncertainty/measured value) if percentage: multiply by 100 measurement of uncertainty: parameter that characterizes the dispersion of the quantity values that are being attributed to a measurand based on the information used we need it: demonstrates metrological quality, documents in transparent way the measurement procedure, gives confidence to the results and allows comparison, demonstrates compliance with limits and establishment of acceptance criteria estimation: specify the measurand (equation, scope of measurement and bias), identify the uncertainty sources (create cause and effect diagram), quantify the uncertainty components, convert the standard uncertainties, calculate the combined standard uncertainty, multiply obtained standard uncertainty by a coverage factor 2(95% confidence level) statistical distributions: 1) normal distribution: use to estimate uncertainty due to random errors ( repeatability precision) u(x)=s 2) triangular: estimate uncertainty when maximum range (+/- a) is given u(x)=a/v6 Rectangular distribution: estimate uncertainty when specification gives limit (+/-a) without specifying the level of confidence (e. g. limits in the specifications of concentration of standards, instrument error) u(x)=a/v3 Selectivity (specificity) – being able to distinguish your analyte from other species in the matrix Sensitivyt – being able to respond reliably and measurably to changes in analyte concentration (slope of calibration curve) Standardization of NaOH solution (C of NaOH = MKHP*P KHP *1000/(M KHP * V NaOh)) propagation of uncertainty: absolute or relative uncertainty of a calculated result can be estimated usig the absolute or relative uncertainties of the values Addition or subtraction: absolute uncertainty obtained using absolute uncertainties used in the calculations (v(abs uncertainty )^2+(abs uncertainty 2)^2†¦ check formula 2. 1 relative uncertainty: still divide the absolute uncertainty by the measurement Chapter 4: Statistics all measurements contain random error (always have uncertainty), uncertainty are used to determine if two or more experimental results are equivalent or different (statistics is used to accomplish this task) Gaussian Curve – distribution of results of large number of experiments done under identical conditions (for a series of experimental results with only random error) Plotted number of occurences (y) vs value (x) and then high population about correct value at peak goes from  µ to 1sigma sa right and -1sigma sa left 2. Any set of data (and corresponding Gaussian curve) can be characterized by two parameters: mean or average value (sum of all values/total number of values taken) standard deviation (take the square root of the sum of the (value taken – mean)/(number of values taken – 1)(better when smaller) variance: related to standard deviation (how wide or precise a distribution of results is) = s^2 (s= stdev) Range: difference in highest and lowest values in a set of data (H-L) Median: value in a set of data which has an equal number of data values above and below it (get the middle, if odd siya, get the two sa middle then divide by 2) Formula for a gaussian curve: check image ( µ= mean, sigma = stdev, e =e) 1. 1 By knowing stdev and mean of a set, the probability of the next result falling in any given range can be calculated by: z = (x-mean)/s (probability of a result falling in the portion in GC is equa to the normalized area of the curve in that portion (+/1s = 86. 3%, 2 95. 5 %, 3-99. 7%, 4-99. 9%) Check formula sheet 1. 2 Get the z, check the area of it, total ? area is 0. 5, remaining area is 0. 5-area Knowing the stdev of a data set indicates the precision of a measurement, precision of many analytical measurements is expressed as: mean+/- 2s (there is only 5% chance that any given measurement on the sample will be outside this range) The precision of a mean result is expressed using a confidence interval (relationship between the true mean value ( µ) and the measured mean is ( µ=mean +/- ((ts/vn) ? confidence interval) s=stdev, n= num of measurements, t= student’s t value degrees of freedom = (n-1) (as n increases, confidence interval becomes smaller and  µ becomes more precisely known) Student’s t: statistical tool frequently used to express confidence intervals (a probability distribution that addresses the problem of estimating a mean of normally distributed population when the sample size is small) check 1. 3 – table Confidence interval: the probability that the range of numbers contains the â€Å"true† mean (50% confidence – range of numbers contains true mean 50% of the time, 90% 90% of time – mas malaki range of values ng 90%) Comparison of data against a set of values get tcalculated – (x-mean/s)(vn)* get tcritical using table (DOFreedom: n-1)95% CL If tcalculated tcritical – data is same as the set of data being compared; if not then different Comparison of Two Data Sets: determine if two results obtained by the same method are statistically the same Tcalculated: (mean result of sample 1 – mean of sample two/stdevn pooled)(v(number of measurements of 1*num of measurements of 2)/(num of measurements of 1 + num of measurements of 2)) CHECK 1. 4 FORMULA SHEET Compare calculated to to value on student’s t probability table (DOF: (n1 + n2 – 2) If calculated t is greater than, then the two are different (easier to achieve for lower % confidence level) Comparison of two methods: check 1. 5 formula sheet Bad data: Q test: used to decide whether or not to reject a â€Å"bad† data point (arrange data increasing order, get range) Q = gap/range (gap = the value minus the value nearest it) Grubbs test: accept or not an outlier = Gcalculated= lOutlier-meanl/s (less than or equal to, retain) 1. 6 Chapter 5: Chemical Bonding and Interactions It’s all about stability: noble gases are intert, it comes from their electronic structure Isolectronic: same electron configuration Ionic bonding: due to electrostatic attraction arising from an exchange of electrons Covalent bonding: chemical bond in which two or more electrons are shared by two atoms Polar covalent or polar bond: covalent bond with greater electron density around one of two atoms (electronnegativy) VSEPR: linear, bent, trigonal planar (bent if AX2E), tetrahedral(trigonal pyramidal, 1 lone; bent 2 lone), (seesaw, t-shaped, linear), octahedral (square pyramidal, square planar) Chapter 6: Intermolecular forces of attraction intermolecular forces: attractive forces between molecules; intramolecular forces: hold atoms together in a molecule (stronger) â€Å"measure of intermolecular force: boiling, melting, heat of vaporization, fusion, sublimation intra: ionic, covalent, metallic inter: ion-dipole (ion charge – dipole charge, ion-polar) ? H bonding (F,O,N-H) ? dipole-dipole (dipole charges or two polar) ? Ion-induced dipole (ion and nonpolar, ion charge-polarizable e- cloud) ? Diple-induced dipole (polar and non polar) ? Dispersion (london)(polarizable e- clouds the more polar, the stronger the interaction, higher dipole moment, higher boiling point hydrogen bonds are responsible for: ice floating, ice is ordere with an open structure to optimize H-bonding, therefore ice is less dense than water thus creates insulating layer on water hydrogen bonding responsible for protein structure: protein folding and DNA transport Polarizability: ease with which the electron distribution in the atom or molecule can be distorted (increases with greater number of electrons and more diffuse electron cloud) Instantaneous dipole: in that instant a dipole is formed, increase with molar mass, increase with length of molecule (not compact) Surface tension: amount of energy required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area Strong intermolecular forces = high surface tension Cohesion: intermolecular attraction between like molecules (pataas meniscus); adhesion – attraction between unlike molecul es (concave meniscus) Viscosity: measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow (strong intermolecular forces = high viscosity) Ultrahydrophobic surfaces Chapter 7: Kinetics reaction rate: changes in the concentrations of reactants or products per unit of time collision theory: atoms, ions, and molecules react to form products when they collide with one another, provided that the colliding particles have enough kinetic energy activation energy minimum energy that colliding particles must have in order to react requirements: must have proper orientation; must have enough kinetic energy to reach activation energy factors that influence reaction rate: concentration (molecules must collide), physical state (must mix), temperature (must collide with enough energy), catalyst reactant concentrations decrease while product concentrations increase (A ? B) rate of reaction= -(change in concentration of A/change in time)= -(conc A2-conA1)/t2-t1 aA + bB ? cC + dD Rate = -(1/a)(? [A]/? t)= -1/b([B]/? t numerical value of the rate depends upon the substance that serves as the reference. The changes in concentration of other reaction components are relative to their co efficients in the balanced chemical equation reaction orders: see formula sheet Integrated Rate Laws: rate = -? [A]/? t = k[A] First order rate equation see formula sheet K[A]^2 second-order rate equation ? [A]/? t = k[A]^0 zero order rate equation = -kt Units of the rate constant k for several reaction orders see formula sheet Arrhenius equation: effect of temperature on reaction rate see formula sheet Frequency factor: importance of molecular orientation to an effective collision Reaction mechanisms: see formula sheet table (example: elementary step A? product, molecularity: unimolecular: rate law: k[A] Rate-determining step: overall rate of a reaction is the slowest step Correlating the mechanism with the Rate law: Elementary steps must add up to the overall balanced equation Elementary steps must be physically reasonable Mechanism must correlate with the rate law Chapter 8: Acid-base titrations Bronsted-Lowry definition of Acids and bases (acids-proton donors; bases-proton acceptors) Acid-base neutralization reaction results into the formation of the conjugate acid and base of the reaction base and acid respectively (stronger acid, weaker the conjugate base) Water undergoes autoprotolysis. This is the disassociation of water into H3O+ and OH- Kw=[H3O+][OH-]ph = -log[H+] pOH = -log[OH-] ph+ pOH =14 pH: measure of the degree of acidity of solutions. The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution battery acid (0), lemon juice(2. 2), vinegar (2. 7), apples (3), tomato juice (4. 3), rain (5. 6), milk (6. 8), human urine and blood (7. 5), seawater (8. 1), milk of magnesia (10. 5), ammonia (12), lye (13) alkaline strengths of acids and bases depend on the extent of reaction/dissociation to produce H+ and OH- respectively strong: complete dissociation, forward reaction *weak: incomplete, equilibrium strong acids: HCl, HBr, HI, H2SO4, HNO3, HClO4 bases: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, R4 + OH weak acid and bases do not completely dissociate in water. The degree of dissociation is described by the acid or base dissociation constants Acid dissociation constant (Ka) ? HA + H2O H3O+ + A-Ka = [H3O+][A-]/[HA] Base dissociation constant (Kb) A- + H2OOH- + HAKb = [OH]][HA]/[A-] Conjugate pairs Kw = KaKb A buffer is a solution that can resist the change in pH when small amounts of acids and bases are added when diluted (a lot of reactions are dependent on pH, buffers are important in the control of ph) Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: pH = pKa + log ([A-]/[HA] Stong base vs strong acid ? equivalence point: steepest point Acid-base indicator changes color as it is protonated or deprotonated, different indicators change color at different pH because they have different dissociation constants Weak acid Vs Strong base: graph has two pa-curve, one for when pH = pKa then one for equivalence Kjeldahl titration: total nitrogen and total protein Microtitration Chapter 9: Gravimetric and Combustion Analysis in gravimetric analysis, the mass of the product is used to estimate the amount of the original analyte, one of the earlierst analytical chemistry techniques analytical balance and desiccator are two most important equipment in gravimetry constant weighing: series of drying, cooling, and weighing until constant weight is reached commonly used desiccants in order of decreasing efficiency: magnesium perchlorate, barium oxide, alumina, phosphorus pentoxide, calcium chloride, drierite (calcium sulfate), silica gel indicator: copper sulfate (blue ? pink) Representative gravimetric techniques: % Moisture, Total Fat, Homogenous precipitation, Ignition, Combustion analysis see formula sheet Precipitation gravimetry: properties of precipitates: Readily filtered and washed free of contamints, sufficiently low solubility so that no significant loss of the analyte occurs during filtration and washing, unreactive with constituents of the atmosphere, not hygroscopic, of known composition after drying or ignition Techniques that promote particle growth: raising temperature to increase solubility and decrease supersaturation, adding precipitant slowly with vigorous mixing to avoid local supersaturation, keep volume of solution large and concentrations of analyte low Formation of crystals occur in two phases: nucleation, particle growth (bigger crystals: particle growth) Types of precipitates: colloidal (NiS), curdy (AgCl), fine crystalline (BaSO4), coarse crystalline (PbCl2), gelatinous (Fe(OH)3). Coprecipitations and other challenges of gravimetry Adsorption vs absorption and inclusion (ordered inside molecule) vs occlusion (kalat sa molecule, possibly containing solvent) Digestion, reprecipitation Aging (Ostwald ripening) and pe ptization Ignition and Thermogravimetric analysis Combustion and elemental analyses Chapter 9: Properties of Solutions â€Å"like dissolves like† two substances with similar intermolecular forces are likely to be soluble in each other ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents remember: physical state of solvent determines the physical state of the solution solubility increases as the shape/length of molecule increases Gas solutions: all gases are infinitely soluble in one another Gas-solid solutions: when gas dissolves in a solid, it occupies the spaces between closely packed particles Solid-solid solutions: example, brass Why substances dissolve? ? three types of interactions in the solution process: solvent-solvent interaction, solute-solute interaction, solvent-solute interaction (? Hsoln = ? Hsolvent + ? Hsolute + ? Hmix) Solution process: exothermic vs endothermic (exothermic, final amount of energy is less than initial) Heats of hydration: ? Hsoln = ? lattice + ? hydr (? hydr is the combination of enthalphy changes for separating solvent and mixing the solute) Change in entropy: solution usually has higher entropy than the pure solute and pure solvent Systems tend toward a state of lower enthalpy and higher entropy Solubility as an equilibrium proce ss A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given solvent at a specific temperature An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the solvent has the capacity to dissolve at a specific temperature A supersaturated solution contains more solute than is present in a saturated solution at a specific temperature Effect of temperature on solubility: most solids are more soluble at higher temperatures; gas solubility in water decreases with rising temperature Effect of pressure on solubility: Sgas = Kh x Pgas (Kh is Henry’s law constant; specific for given gas-solvent at a given temperature) ? inversely proportional formula sheet Colligative properties – properties that depend only on the number of solute particles and not on the nature of the solute particles Electrolyte: dissociates into ions in aqeous solutions and nonelectrolyte: does not Vapour-pressure lowering – vapor pressure of the solution is lower than the vapor pre ssure of the pure solvent see formula sheet (called Raoult’s law) Boiling-Point elevation: solution boils at higher temperature than the pure solvent (formula) Freezing-point depression: solutions freeze at lower temperature than pure solvent? Osmotic Pressure (? ) – pressure required to stop osmosis Osmosis – selective passage of solvent molecules through a porous membrane from a dilute solution to a more concentrated one Semipermeable membrane allows the passage of solvent molecules but blocks the passage of solute molecules Proportional to (n solute/Vsolution ) or to Molarity May be computed through ? = MRT (molarity)(gas constant)(temperature) Colligative properties of strong electrolyte solutiosn Van’t hoff factor, i, tells us what the effect number of ions are in the solution Measured value for electrolyte solution/(expected value for nonelectrolyte solution) Actual number of particles in solution after dissociation/(number of formula units initially dissolved in solution) Chapter 10: analytical Separations sample purity: many chemical analysis are not specific for a compound, often necessary to purify compound of interest techniques: extraction, distillation, precipitation, chromatography, centrifugation, filtration Extractions: transfer a compound from one chemical phase to another (two phases used can be liquid-liquid, liquid-solid, etc)Sphase ? k? Sphase 2 k= partition coefficient Extraction efficiency – fraction of moles of S remaining in phase 1 after one extraction can be determined if the value of k and the voumes of phases 1 and 2 are known When n approaches infinity, eventually the amount of S remaining in phase 1 becomes 0 (responsible for water memory, (homoepathic med water memory activity of drug even; detects antibody after 110^120 dilution, placebo effect) pH affects extractions ? for weaks acid and bases, protonated and non-protonated forms usually have different partition coefficients (k) charged form (A- or BH+) will not be extracted, neutral form (HA or B) will be extracted Partitioning is described in terms of the total amount of a substance Individual concentrations of both B and BH+ or HA and A- are more difficult to determine Partitioning is regardless of form in both phases (described by the distribution coefficient (D) Distribution of a weak base or weak acid is pH dependent Ability to change distribution ratio of weak acid/base useful in selecting conditions for extraction some but not all Use low ph to extract HA but not BH+ and high pH to extract B but not A- Extraction with a metal chelator Metal ions may be separated from one another by using various organic complexing agents (soluble in organic solvent) Common complexing agents: cupferron, 8-hyroxyquionaline, dithizone, crown ethers Many of the complexing agents bind to a varity of metals (diff erent strengths and equilibrium constants) A metal ion extraction may be mode selective for a particular metal by choosing a complexing agent at high affinity to the metal and by adjusting the pH of extraction Chromatography: separation technique based on the different rates of travel of solutes through a system composed of two phases Stationary phase: chemical phase which remains in the column (chromatographic system) and mobile phase: chemical phase which travels through column (eluent in ? column ? eluate out) Support: solid onto which the stationary phase is chemically attached or coated Chromatography detects compounds emerging in column by changes in absorbance, voltage, current, etc Solutes are separated in chromatography by the different interactions with the stationary phase and mobile phase (solutes that interact more with the stationary phase take longer to pass) Retention time: time it takes a compound to pass through a column Retention volume: volume of mobile phase needed to push a solute through the column Fundamental measures of solute retention: Adjusted retention time: (tr’) additional time required for a solute to travel through a vacuum beyond the time required for non-retained solute (tr’ = tr-tm) Relative retention: ratio of adjusted retention between two solutes (higher relative ret, higher separation, higher capacity factor) Capacity factor (k’): longer the component is retained by the column, greater this is (may be used to monitor performance of a column if you will use a standard)(directly proportional to partition coefficient, k) Efficiency of separation: the width of a solute peak is important in determining how well one solute is separated from another (one measure of this is the width of the peak at half-height (w1/2) The separation of two solutes in chromatography depends both on the width of the peaks and their degrees of retention Resolution, you want this /=1. 5 (tr2-tr1/((wb2+wb1)/2) Measure of column efficiency: number of theoretical plates (N), similar to number of extractions, as N increases, greater the separation between the two compounds Height equivalents of a theoretical plate (H or HETP): distance along the column that corresponds to â€Å"one† theoretical separation plate As H decreases, more steps per column are possible (results in narrower peaks and better separation between two neighboring solutes) H is affected by flow of rate of mobile phase, size of support (directly proportional), diffusion of solute (inversely prop), strength of retention Improve resolution by increasing column length Why bands spread? Efficiency is dependent on peak width through the column C (described as standard dev) Factors: sample injection, longitudal diffusion, finite equilibriation between phases, multiple flow paths Sample injection: sample is injected on the column with a finite width which contributes to the overall broadening (similar broadening may occur in detector) Longitudinal diffusion: bands slowly broaden as molecules difuse more from high contentration in band to regions of lower concentrations Finite equilibriation time between phases: finite time is required to equilibriate between stationary and mobile phase at each plate (same solute is stuck in stationary phase as remainder moves forward in mobile phase) Multiple flow paths – some arrive sooner than others because of different paths travelled and distances description of band spread: plate height is proportional to band width (smaller plate height, narrow the band) ? Von Deemter equation Types of Liquid Chromatography Adsorption chromatography: solutes are separated based on their abilities to adsorb the support’s surfaces (uses an underivatized solid support, stationary phase = solid support)(oldest) Partition chrom – solutes are separated based on their ability to partition between stationary and mobile phase (uses solid support coated or chemically derivatized w/a a polar or nonpolar layer)(most common)(good for organic compounds) reversed phase: stationary is nonpolar Ion-exchange chromatography: separate ions based on their abilities to interact with fixed exchange sites (uses solid support containing fixed charges (exchange sites) on surface (cation exchange: support neg groups; anion-exchange: supports positive groups) Size exclusion chrom: separates large and small solutes based on their different abilities to enter the pores (uses porous support that does not absorb solutes)(used to separate biological molecules/polymers which differ in size/MW) Affinity chromatography: base d on ability to bind to the affinity liquid (support that contains an immobilized biological molecule (affinity ligand)(purify bio molecules) and most selective) Packed and open-tubular columns (higher resolution, increased sensitivity but small capacity - no bond spreading from multiple paths; higher flow rates, longer columns – more theoretical plates and resolution) Chapter 11: Spectrophotometry colorimetry: analytical technique in which the concentration of an analyte is measured by its ability to produce or change the color of a solution changes the solution’s ability to absorb light; comes in two kinds: instrumental, non-instrumental spectrophotometry: any technique that uses light to measure chemical concentrations a colorimetric method where an instrument is used to determine the amount of an analyte in a sample by the sample’s ability or inability to absorb light at a certain wavelength example: measurement of ozone above south pole Properties of Light Particles